(individual subject)

Jur. droit subjectif

подвергать (expose, subject, put, process)

подчинять (subordinate, subject, submit, subdue, subjugate, conquer)

покорять (conquer, submit, subdue, subjugate, bend, subject)

представлять (present, represent, introduce, furnish, perform, subject)

тема (TOPIC, theme, subject, text, chapter, burden)

предмет (subject, Thing, object, article, matter, theme)

субъект (subject, person, party, specimen, bozo, merchant)

объект (object, facility, subject, objective, entity, operand)

подлежащее (subject)

сюжет (plot, story, subject, chapter)

человек (Man, person, human, individual, human being, subject)

содержание (content, contents, maintenance, substance, upkeep, subject)

подданный (subject, patrial)

дисциплина (discipline, subject, School)

повод (occasion, reason, rein, cause, motive, subject)

предмет разговора (subject)

главная тема (subject)

труп (corpse, body, carcass, carcase, cadaver, subject)

причина (cause, reason, why, root, ground, subject)

подлежащий (subject, liable)

подчиненный (subordinate, subject, under, inferior, subdued, dependent)

подданный (subject)

подверженный (subject, subject to, liable, apt, amenable)

подопытный (experimental, subject)

подвластный (subject, dependent, dependant)

зависимый (dependent, subject, adjective, dependant, non-independent)

1) General subject: IDP (SEIC)

2) American: IDP

General subject: ICP

notation.

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► nombre femenino

1 notation

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SF notation

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femenino notation

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= class mark [classmark], class number, notation, notational symbol, class symbol.

Nota: Nomenclatura utilizada para representar una clase dentro de un sistema de clasificación.

Ex. The resulting expression of the subject of a document in notational terms constitutes the class mark or class number of that document.

Ex. The resulting expression of the subject of a document in notational terms constitutes the class mark or class number of that document.

Ex. In a classification scheme each subject is allocated a piece of notation, and that notation is used to represent the subject.

Ex. A unique notational symbol should be provided for each individual subject, whether it be simple or complex.

Ex. Entries representing documents sometimes referred to as 'surrogates' can be arranged according to their subjects by means of terms or class symbols.

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* asignación de una notación = allocation of notation.

* asignar una notación = allocate + notation.

* desde el punto de vista de la notación = notationally.

* lista de notaciones = code vocabulary.

* notación alfabética = alphabetical notation.

* notación alfanumérica = alphanumeric notation.

* notación aritmética = arithmetic notation.

* notación binaria = binary notation.

* notación científica = scientific notation.

* notación decimal = decimal notation.

* notación de clase = class notation.

* Notación de la Clasificación de la Biblioteca del Congreso (LCCN) = LCCN (Library of Congress Classification Number).

* notación estructurada = structured notation.

* notación expresiva = expressive notation.

* notación jerárquica = hierarchical notation.

* notación lineal = linear notation.

* Notación Lineal de Wiswesser = Wiswesser Line Notation (WLN).

* notación mixta = mixed notation.

* notación no transparente = non-expressive notation.

* notación numérica = numerical notation.

* notación pronunciable = pronounceable notation.

* notación pura = pure notation.

* notación retroactiva = retroactive notation.

* notación silábica = syllabic notation.

* traducción de encabezamientos a través de notaciones biblioggráficas = information switching.

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femenino notation

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= class mark [classmark], class number, notation, notational symbol, class symbol.

Nota: Nomenclatura utilizada para representar una clase dentro de un sistema de clasificación.

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notation

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notación nf

notation

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f MÚS notation

1) (a series (of lectures, medicines etc): I'm taking a course (of lectures) in sociology; He's having a course of treatment for his leg.) curso

2) (a division or part of a meal: Now we've had the soup, what's (for) the next course?) plato

3) (the ground over which a race is run or a game (especially golf) is played: a racecourse; a golf-course.) campo, pista

4) (the path or direction in which something moves: the course of the Nile.) curso

5) (the progress or development of events: Things will run their normal course despite the strike.) curso

6) (a way (of action): What's the best course of action in the circumstances?) camino, modo de proceder

•

- in the course of

course n

1. curso

2. plato

3. rumbo

tr[kɔːs]

noun

1 (direction - gen) curso, dirección nombre femenino; (of ship) rumbo; (of river) curso

■ they were sailing a southerly course navegaban con rumbo sur

2 figurative use (direction - of person's life) rumbo

3 (way of acting, plan of action) plan nombre masculino de acción, línea de acción

■ we may have to adopt a similiar course puede que tengamos que adoptar una línea parecida

■ what courses are open to us? ¿qué opciones tenemos?

■ your best course of action is to forget about it lo mejor que puedes hacer es olvidarlo

■ it's the only course of action open to us es lo único que podemos hacer

4 (development, progress) curso, marcha

■ in the course of time con el tiempo

■ the course of events la marcha de los acontecimientos

■ the course of history el curso de la historia

■ in the course of the meeting en el curso de la reunión

5 SMALLEDUCATION/SMALL (year-long) curso; (short) cursillo; (series) ciclo; (at university) carrera; (individual subject) asignatura

■ the sociology course lasts three years la carrera de sociología es de tres cursos

6 SMALLMEDICINE/SMALL serie nombre femenino, tanda

■ a course of injections una tanda de inyecciones

7 (of meal) plato

■ a three-course meal una comida de dos platos y postre

8 SMALLSPORT/SMALL (for golf) campo; (racecourse) hipódromo; (stretch, distance) curso, recorrido

■ obstacle course pista de obstáculos

9 (of bricks) hilada

intransitive verb

1 correr, fluir

\

in due course a su debido tiempo

of course claro, desde luego, por supuesto, naturalmente

■ yes, of course! ¡claro que sí!

■ of course not! ¡claro que no!

to be on course (ship, plane) seguir el rumbo 2 (plan, company, etc) ir encaminado,-a, llevar camino ( for, de)

■ the government is on course for trouble with the unions el gobierno lleva camino de tener problemas con los sindicatos

to be off course perder el rumbo, desviarse del rumbo

to change course cambiar de rumbo

to set course for poner rumbo a

to take its course / run its course seguir su curso

course of treatment SMALLMEDICINE/SMALL tratamiento

first course primer plato, entrante nombre masculino

refresher course SMALLEDUCATION/SMALL cursillo de reciclaje

second course segundo plato

sweet course postre nombre masculino

course ['kors] vi, coursed ; coursing : correr (a toda velocidad)

course n

1) progress: curso m, transcurso m

to run its course: seguir su curso

2) direction: rumbo m (de un avión), derrota f, derrotero m (de un barco)

3) path, way: camino m, vía f

course of action: línea de conducta

4) : plato m (de una cena)

the main course: el plato principal

5) : curso m (académico)

of course : desde luego, por supuesto

yes, of course!: ¡claro que sí!

course (Meal)

• plato s.m.

• asignatura s.f.

• camino s.m.

• carrera s.f.

• corriente s.m.

• curso s.m.

• derrota s.f.

• pista s.f.

• rumbo s.m.

• sentido s.m.

• transcurso s.m.

• trayecto s.m.

• trayectoria s.f.

• correr v.

• perseguir v.

1)

a) ( of river) curso m; ( of road) recorrido m

b) ( way of proceeding)

c) ( progress) (no pl)

2)

3) (Aviat, Naut) rumbo m

4)

a) ( Educ) curso m

b) ( Med)

5) ( part of a meal) plato m

6) ( Sport) ( racecourse) hipódromo m, pista f (de carreras); ( golf course) campo m or (CS tb) cancha f (de golf)

intransitive verb ( flow swiftly) (liter)

1. N

1) (=route, direction) [of ship, plane] rumbo m; [of river] curso m; [of planet] órbita f

2) (=line of action)

3) (=process) curso m

4)

5) (Scol, Univ) curso m

6) (Med) (=regimen)

7) (Sport) (=distance) recorrido m; (=surface) pista f; (=racecourse) hipódromo m

- stay the course

8) (Culin) plato m

9) (Naut) (=sail) vela f mayor

10) (Constr) (=layer) [of bricks] hilada f

VI [water, air] correr; [tears] rodar; [sweat] caer; (fig) [emotion] invadir

VT (Hunting) † cazar

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1)

a) ( of river) curso m; ( of road) recorrido m

b) ( way of proceeding)

c) ( progress) (no pl)

2)

3) (Aviat, Naut) rumbo m

4)

a) ( Educ) curso m

b) ( Med)

5) ( part of a meal) plato m

6) ( Sport) ( racecourse) hipódromo m, pista f (de carreras); ( golf course) campo m or (CS tb) cancha f (de golf)

intransitive verb ( flow swiftly) (liter)

m. person, individual, subject

SUBJECT AREA: Medical technology, Photography, film and optics

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At the age of 19 Marey went to Paris to study medicine, becoming particularly interested in the problems of the circulation of the blood. In an early communication to the Académie des Sciences he described a much improved device for recording the pulse, the sphygmograph, in which the beats were recorded on a smoked plate. Most of his subsequent work was concerned with methods of recording movement: to study the movement of the horse, he used pneumatic sensors on each hoof to record traces on a smoked drum; this device became known as the Marey recording tambour. His attempts to study the wing movements of a bird in flight in the same way met with limited success since the recording system interfered with free movement. Reading in 1878 of Muybridge's work in America using sequence photography to study animal movement, Marey considered the use of photography himself. In 1882 he developed an idea first used by the astronomer Janssen: a camera in which a series of exposures could be made on a circular photographic plate. Marey's "photographic gun" was rifle shaped and could expose twelve pictures in approximately one second on a circular plate. With this device he was able to study wing movements of birds in free flight. The camera was limited in that it could record only a small number of images, and in the summer of 1882 he developed a new camera, when the French government gave him a grant to set up a physiological research station on land provided by the Parisian authorities near the Porte d'Auteuil. The new design used a fixed plate, on which a series of images were recorded through a rotating shutter. Looking rather like the results provided by a modern stroboscope flash device, the images were partially superimposed if the subject was slow moving, or separated if it was fast. His human subjects were dressed all in white and moved against a black background. An alternative was to dress the subject in black, with highly reflective strips and points along limbs and at joints, to produce a graphic record of the relationships of the parts of the body during action. A one-second-sweep timing clock was included in the scene to enable the precise interval between exposures to be assessed. The fixed-plate cameras were used with considerable success, but the number of individual records on each plate was still limited. With the appearance of Eastman's Kodak roll-film camera in France in September 1888, Marey designed a new camera to use the long rolls of paper film. He described the new apparatus to the Académie des Sciences on 8 October 1888, and three weeks later showed a band of images taken with it at the rate of 20 per second. This camera and its subsequent improvements were the first true cinematographic cameras. The arrival of Eastman's celluloid film late in 1889 made Marey's camera even more practical, and for over a decade the Physiological Research Station made hundreds of sequence studies of animals and humans in motion, at rates of up to 100 pictures per second. Marey pioneered the scientific study of movement using film cameras, introducing techniques of time-lapse, frame-by-frame and slow-motion analysis, macro-and micro-cinematography, superimposed timing clocks, studies of airflow using smoke streams, and other methods still in use in the 1990s. Appointed Professor of Natural History at the Collège de France in 1870, he headed the Institut Marey founded in 1898 to continue these studies. After Marey's death in 1904, the research continued under the direction of his associate Lucien Bull, who developed many new techniques, notably ultra-high-speed cinematography.

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See also: Demenÿ, Georges

BC / MG

SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Railways and locomotives, Steam and internal combustion engines

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Orphaned as a child, Hamilton went to work for Southern Pacific Railroad in his teens, and then worked for several other companies. In his spare time he learned mathematics and physics from a retired professor. In 1911 he joined the White Motor Company, makers of road motor vehicles in Denver, Colorado, where he had gone to recuperate from malaria. He remained there until 1922, apart from an eighteenth-month break for war service.

Upon his return from war service, Hamilton found White selling petrol-engined railbuses with mechanical transmission, based on road vehicles, to railways. He noted that they were not robust enough and that the success of petrol railcars with electric transmission, built by General Electric since 1906, was limited as they were complex to drive and maintain. In 1922 Hamilton formed, and became President of, the Electro- Motive Engineering Corporation (later Electro-Motive Corporation) to design and produce petrol-electric rail cars. Needing an engine larger than those used in road vehicles, yet lighter and faster than marine engines, he approached the Win ton Engine Company to develop a suitable engine; in addition, General Electric provided electric transmission with a simplified control system. Using these components, Hamilton arranged for his petrol-electric railcars to be built by the St Louis Car Company, with the first being completed in 1924. It was the beginning of a highly successful series. Fuel costs were lower than for steam trains and initial costs were kept down by using standardized vehicles instead of designing for individual railways. Maintenance costs were minimized because Electro-Motive kept stocks of spare parts and supplied replacement units when necessary. As more powerful, 800 hp (600 kW) railcars were produced, railways tended to use them to haul trailer vehicles, although that practice reduced the fuel saving. By the end of the decade Electro-Motive needed engines more powerful still and therefore had to use cheap fuel. Diesel engines of the period, such as those that Winton had made for some years, were too heavy in relation to their power, and too slow and sluggish for rail use. Their fuel-injection system was erratic and insufficiently robust and Hamilton concluded that a separate injector was needed for each cylinder.

In 1930 Electro-Motive Corporation and Winton were acquired by General Motors in pursuance of their aim to develop a diesel engine suitable for rail traction, with the use of unit fuel injectors; Hamilton retained his position as President. At this time, industrial depression had combined with road and air competition to undermine railway-passenger business, and Ralph Budd, President of the Chicago, Burlington \& Quincy Railroad, thought that traffic could be recovered by way of high-speed, luxury motor trains; hence the Pioneer Zephyr was built for the Burlington. This comprised a 600 hp (450 kW), lightweight, two-stroke, diesel engine developed by General Motors (model 201 A), with electric transmission, that powered a streamlined train of three articulated coaches. This train demonstrated its powers on 26 May 1934 by running non-stop from Denver to Chicago, a distance of 1,015 miles (1,635 km), in 13 hours and 6 minutes, when the fastest steam schedule was 26 hours. Hamilton and Budd were among those on board the train, and it ushered in an era of high-speed diesel trains in the USA. By then Hamilton, with General Motors backing, was planning to use the lightweight engine to power diesel-electric locomotives. Their layout was derived not from steam locomotives, but from the standard American boxcar. The power plant was mounted within the body and powered the bogies, and driver's cabs were at each end. Two 900 hp (670 kW) engines were mounted in a single car to become an 1,800 hp (l,340 kW) locomotive, which could be operated in multiple by a single driver to form a 3,600 hp (2,680 kW) locomotive. To keep costs down, standard locomotives could be mass-produced rather than needing individual designs for each railway, as with steam locomotives. Two units of this type were completed in 1935 and sent on trial throughout much of the USA. They were able to match steam locomotive performance, with considerable economies: fuel costs alone were halved and there was much less wear on the track. In the same year, Electro-Motive began manufacturing diesel-electrie locomotives at La Grange, Illinois, with design modifications: the driver was placed high up above a projecting nose, which improved visibility and provided protection in the event of collision on unguarded level crossings; six-wheeled bogies were introduced, to reduce axle loading and improve stability. The first production passenger locomotives emerged from La Grange in 1937, and by early 1939 seventy units were in service. Meanwhile, improved engines had been developed and were being made at La Grange, and late in 1939 a prototype, four-unit, 5,400 hp (4,000 kW) diesel-electric locomotive for freight trains was produced and sent out on test from coast to coast; production versions appeared late in 1940. After an interval from 1941 to 1943, when Electro-Motive produced diesel engines for military and naval use, locomotive production resumed in quantity in 1944, and within a few years diesel power replaced steam on most railways in the USA.

Hal Hamilton remained President of Electro-Motive Corporation until 1942, when it became a division of General Motors, of which he became Vice-President.

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I. (et -er)

(gram.) subject.

II. (et -er)

(neds om person) seedy individual.

SUBJECT AREA: Photography, film and optics

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Born of French parents, Lippman's work began with a distinguished career in classics, philosophy, mathematics and physics at the Ecole Normale in Luxembourg. After further studies in physics at Heidelberg University, he returned to France and the Sorbonne, where he was in 1886 appointed Director of Physics. He was a leading pioneer in France of research into electricity, optics, heat and other branches of physics.

In 1886 he conceived the idea of recording the existence of standing waves in light when it is reflected back on itself, by photographing the colours so produced. This required the production of a photographic emulsion that was effectively grainless: the individual silver halide crystals had to be smaller than the shortest wavelength of light to be recorded. Lippman succeeded in this and in 1891 demonstrated his process. A glass plate was coated with a grainless emulsion and held in a special plate-holder, glass towards the lens. The back of the holder was filled with mercury, which provided a perfect reflector when in contact with the emulsion. The standing waves produced during the exposure formed laminae in the emulsion, with the number of laminae being determined by the wavelength of the incoming light at each point on the image. When the processed plate was viewed under the correct lighting conditions, a theoretically exact reproduction of the colours of the original subject could be seen. However, the Lippman process remained a beautiful scientific demonstration only, since the ultra-fine-grain emulsion was very slow, requiring exposure times of over 10,000 times that of conventional negative material. Any method of increasing the speed of the emulsion also increased the grain size and destroyed the conditions required for the process to work.

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